Determination of the liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index Lab Report

Determination of the liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index of a cohesive soil - Lab Report Example Data plot was taken from the results of the liquid limit test, where the x-coordinates or abscissas are the calculated moisture contents and the y-coordinates or ordinates are the penetration. The data points included in the plot are P1 (63.37, 14.13); P2 (66.26, 18.90); P3 (69.58, 19.45); and P4 (70.44, 22.15). The trend line or the best fit line was automatically fitted and the equation of the line was generated. From the figure, the equation of the best fit line is: y=0.9613x – 46.148. From step (10) of the laboratory procedure for the determination of the liquid limit, the theoretical value of moisture content which would produce a penetration of 20 mm is the liquid limit of the soil. Hence, when y in the above equation is substituted with 20, the value of the liquid limit (x) may be calculated algebraically as; y = 0.9613x – 46.148. 20 = 0.9163x – 46.148 0.9163 x = 20 + 46.148 x = 68.81 ? 69% - the liquid limit of the soil The value of the liquid limit obtai ned above is verified below by manual plotting. Manual Plot of Moisture Content vs. Penetration Plastic Limits Test No. 1 2 3 4 Container No.

Understanding The Purpose Of Interval Training Physical Education Essay

Understanding The Purpose Of Interval Training Physical Education Essay Interval training involves a repeated series of exercise work bouts interspersed with rest of relief periods. This is a popular method among athletes because it allows the athlete to exercise at higher relative intensities during the work interval than are possible with longer-duration, continuous training (Heyward 2002). The intensity can vary from between all out to greater than competition intensity. Recovery periods can be from considerably less than the preceding work bout to complete recovery (recovery can be active or inactive). The duration can last from a few seconds to many minutes. The number of work bouts can obviously be from 2 to possibly 100 or more. Interval training is geared towards and dictated by the physiological variable-maximum oxygen consumption. With this in mind it might be more appropriate to refer to this type of training as vo2 max or aerobic capacity training since one trains at or very near the intensity which demands vo2 max of the system (Daniels and Scardina, 1984). Interval training can be referred to in a number of different ways. Fox (1977) refers to two types of interval training, low power output interval training (LPO-IT) and high power output interval training (HPO-IT). HPO-IT involves exercise and pause periods of less than one minute. Gibala and mcgee (2008) refer to High intensity training (HIT). This generally refers to repeated sessions of relatively brief intermittent exercise often performed with an all out effort or at an intensity close to that which elicits VO2 peak (i.e >90% of vo2 peak). Depending on the training intensity, a single effort may last from a few seconds to up to several minutes with multiple efforts separated by up to a few minutes of rest or low intensity exercise (Gibala and McGee, 2008). Minimum volume of HIT may be necessary to increase VO2 peak and stimulate other adaptations such as an increase capacity for fat oxidation. On the other hand Astrand and Rodahl (1977) say that exercise bouts lasting 3-5 minutes each are the longest recommended and are considered optimum for training aerobic processes. The purpose of high intensity training is to repeatedly stress the physiological systems that will be used during specific endurance type exercise (Daniels and Scardina 1984) to a greater extent than which is actually required during a specific activity. At any level of exercise, duration frequency, programme length or initial fitness, intensity was the most important factor in producing improvements in aerobic power (Wenger and bell, 1986). Interval training in the highly trained athlete Landree (1997), lake and cavanagh (1996) and costill et al (1988) all report that an additional increase in submaximal exercise doesnt appear to further improve endurance performance and associated factors such as VO2 max, anaerobic threshold, econonmy of motion and oxidative muscle enzymes. In highly trained individuals further improvements in performance can only occur via high intensity interval training (Landree 1997). Interval training in the sedentary and recreationally active It is generally believed that in sedentary (VO2 max 60 ml/kg/min) (Rowell 1993, ekblom 1969). In contrast to this a study by Hickson et al (1977) found that the vo2 max of eight sedentary and recreationally active people could be significantly increased after to 10 weeks of high intensity exercise training using cycling intervals. Lauresen and Jenkins (2002) also report improved endurance performance. They reported that high intensity interval training in sedentary and recreationally active individuals improves endurance performance more than continuous sub maximal training alone. This improvement appears due to an up regulated contribution of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to the energy demand (Rodas et al 2000, MacDougall 1998). This could also be due to an improved capacity for aerobic metabolism through the increase in type 1 muscle fibres (Linossier et al 1993), cappiliristaion and oxidative enzyme activity.(Macdougall et al 1998, Essen et al 1977, chilibeck et al 1998). These adaptations are the most common due to High intensity interval training in untrainined or modertaley active. Holoszy and booth (1976) and Holoszy and Coyle (1984) report that submaximal endurance training has little or no effect on gylcolytic enzyme activity whereas supramaximal high intensity training can elicit up regulation of both glycolytic and oxidative enzyme capacity, maximal short term power but most importantly can increase VO2 max in an untrainined individual. Studies supporting increases in V02 max with interval training Studies have shown that 6-12 weeks of moderate intensity exercise can increase aerobic capacity and mitochondrial enzyme activity (gollnick et al 1973, hickson et al 1977) but sprint interval training at very high outputs (150-300% VO2 peak) for 6-7 weeks also produces similar results (Macdougall et al 1998, Rodas et al 2000, Tabata et al 1996) Tabata et al (1996) carried out a study involving 7-8 sets of 20 second high intensity exercise (170% of VO2 max) with 10 seconds rest between intervals. Post tests revealed a significant increase in VO2 max of 7ml.kg.min. This study concluded that adequate high intensity intermittent training may improve both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems significantly through imposing intensive stimuli on both systems. Fox (1973) and (1977) compared low power output training compared to high power output training. It observed no differences in Vo2 max gain with low power output training versus high power output training. This suggested that in long exercise repeats oxygen transport demands would be greater with vo2 max achieved in each exercise phase while in sprint repeats the high intensity may result in greater muscle hypoxia stimulating adaptations in muscle oxidative capacity. HIIT over a longer period of time (4-6wk) has been reported to increase high-intensity exercise performance, muscle buffering capacity, whole body exercise fat oxidation rates, and aerobic capacity (Edge et al 2005, Laursen and Jenkins 2002, Weston et al 1997) Talanian et al (2007) found that after 2 weeks of high intensity aerobic intervak training vo2 peak increased by 13%. Rodas et al (2000) conducted a study to evaluate the changes in aerobic and anaerobic metabolism produced by a newly devised short training programme. The training involved fourteen training sessions everyday for two weeks. Training consisted of a number of 15 second all out sprints with 45 second rest and also a number of 30 second all out sprints with 12 minute rest periods. The participants involved were moderately active individuals. Results found an increase in vo2 peak pre and post training from 57.3 +2.6 to 63.8 + 3.0 ml.min.kg following a progressive exercise test. Macdougall et all 1998 conducted a study involving 30 second maximum sprint effort interspearsed by 2-4 minutes of recovery performed 3 times per week for 7 weeks. The program began with four intervals with four minutes recovery per session to 10 intervals with 2.5 minutes. The effect of the training program on VO2max was that it increased from 3.73 + 0.13 to 4.01 + 0.08l/min (P # 0.05). Because there were no significant changes in body mass over the training program, V O2max relative to body mass also increased significantly from 51.0 + 1.8 to 54.5 ml ·kg-1  ·min-1. Gorostiaga et al (1991) compared high intensity training, using repeated 30 second sprints with 30 second rest, to continous training at 50% of VO2 max. All participants cycled 30 minutes per day, 3 days a week for 8 weeks. Both groups were exercising at the same mean intensity. Post training incremental tests revealed an increase in VO2 max, exercising work rate and peak power more so in the high intensity training group (9-16% improvement) compared to the continous training group ( 5-7% improvement). Studies by Edge et al (2005), Laursen and Jenkins (2002) and Weston et al (1997) have found that High intensity interval training for 4-6 weeks improved high intensity exercise performance, increased muscle buffering capacity, increased whole body fat oxidation rates and also improved aerobic capacity. Gibala and Mcgee (2008) reviewed the high intensity training intervention the wingate test which involves 30 seconds of all out maximal cycling. This is also the method being used in this study. Protocols involved 4-6 wingates with 4 minutes of recovery between each one. A total of 2-3 minutes of intense exercise per session with 3 sessions per week for 2-6 weeks( Burgomaster et al 2008,2007,2006 and Gibala et al 2006 ). There was no measurable change in VO2 peak after 2 weeks of interval training wingates as the intervention. This suggests that peripheral adaptations improved exercise capacity. On the other hand studies by ( Rodas 2000 and talanian et al 2007) found increases in vo2 max after just 2 weeks of high intensity training. Bailey et al (2009) also used the wingate based model for their training intervention. Particpants performed all out 30 seconds wingate with 4 in week one progressing to 6 and 7 in week 5 and 6. Each wingate was separated by 4 minutes of rest. Post intervention testing showed a significant increase in VO2 max. Pre testing participants had a vo2 max of 3.06+ 0.60 l/min which increased post testing to 3.29+0.65 l/min. Also VO2 max increased in relative terms from 42+6 to 45+6 ml.kg.min. The other two other groups of participants one performing endurance training and the other a control group showed no increase in V02 max. Studies not showing improvement in VO2 max performance Franch et al (1998) compared the effects of a continous training programme and a high intensity training programme in recreational runners. All participants were split into three groups. The first training group was a short high intensity training group which involved 30-40 15 second runs at 20.4km/h with 15 seconds rest between intervals. The second training group involved a long high intensity training programme which was 4-6 4 minute runs at 16.6km/h with 2 minutes of inactive rest. The final group did a continous traning programme with 15km/h for 26 minutes. All groups trained three times per week for six weeks . The results of this study found that continous and long high intensity interval training improved VO2 max than short high intensity training. Burgomaster et al (2006) and (2005) used a wingate based training intervention for their study. 4-7 all out 30 second wingates were carried out over a 2 week period. Post testing revealed no significant difference in VO2 peak (p Hypothesis From reviewing previous studies and studies using similar methodology I hypothesise that VO2 max will increase in post testing. I also hypothesise that peak wattage in the incremental test will increase and also time to exhaustion. The reason for under taking this study is that I feel that other studies have looked at other factors rather than specifically focusing on VO2 max. Method Subjects 16 healthy males from the University of Exeter Rugby Union Club volunteered to participate in this study (mean age weight and height and SD). The participants were contacted via email and also verbally The subjects regularly took part in exercise, usually involving 4 training sessions a week, two being skills based and the other two being resistance sessions. Participants were asked to carry one with normal training before any testing had began and were asked to maintain their normal diet throughout the duration of the study although participants were asked to refrain from alcohol 24 hours before any testing. Ethical procedure Before any testing could be done the study had to be ethical approved by the University of Exeter School of sport and health sciences ethics board. Prior to the study all participants were informed fully about the study including all risks and all procedures involved verbally and in writing. All participants volunteered to be in the study and filled out informed consent forms in accordance with the ethics committee of the University of Exeter. Particpants were informed they had the right to withdraw from the study at any point. All results gained from the study were kept confidential and stored privately. Experimental design Subjects in the testing group were required to attend the laboratory on ten occasions over a 4 week period and control group on two occasions. All tests were separated with at least twenty four hours of recovery. All subjects undertook pre and post training incremental tests to ascertain Vo2 peak. Testing group then participated in a series of all out 30 second wingate tests over a four week training period. Screening Participants were asked to fill out a PAR-Q (a physical activity readiness questionnaire) to make sure there were no underlying medical problems. A risk factor count was also undertaken which involved blood pressure measurement using a sphygmomanometer. Particpants were weighed (in kg) and height measured (in cm) and recorded. Weight being most important as this data was need to eastablish weight applied during the wingate tests. Incremental tests Both before and after the training intervention all subjects performed ramp incremental tests to determine VO2 max. The ramp incremental tests were performed on an electronically braked cycle ergometer (Lode Excalibur Sport, Gronigen, The Netherlands). Subjects performed 3 minutes at 50 watts after which the wattage increased 1 watt every 2 seconds until volatile exhaustion. Subjects were asked to cycle at a constant rate of 80rpm. When the rpm dropped below 80rpm participants were encouraged to increase the rpm back up and the test was ended when participants reached below 70rpm. Saddle and handlebar height was adjusted to suit each subject and then recorded for future reference in post testing. Verbal encouragement was used throughout to encourage participants to last as long as physically possible to obtain accurate data. Gas exchange data was collected continuously using cortex gas analyser. VO2 max was taken from the highest value before the subjects volatile exhaustion. Heart r ate was measured minute by minute using polar heart rate monitor. After volatile exhaustion the end wattage and time at exhaustion was recorded. Training intervention After completing pre testing, the testing group performed a series of all out 30 second sprints (Wingate tests) twice a week over a four week period. The Wingate tests were performed against a resistance equivalent to 0.075kg/kg body mass on a mechanically braked cycle ergometer (model 814E bicycle ergometer, Monark, Stockholm, Sweden). All wingates were interspersed with 4 minutes rest. In week one of testing participants were asked to perform 3 Wingates interspersed with four minutes of rest twice a week. This then increased by one Wingate per week (i.e week one three wingates, week two four wingates, week three five Wingates and week four six wingates).All participants were provided with a warm up on the cycle ergometer against no resistance. Having weighed the participants the relevant weight was added to the basket. Five seconds before each Wingate participants were asked to generate high pedalling speed in order to create a rolling start for when the weight was dropped. Partici pants were told when there was 10 and 5 seconds left of the test, so they could work at their maximal capacity for the duration of the test. During the rest periods participants were asked to cycle at a low cadence against no resistance. The computer program wingate 30 provided data on peak power, mean power and fatigue rate. Verbal encouragement was given throughout the winagates to encourage maximal effort and water was provided during each rest interval. Statistical analysis All pre and post incremental gas analysis was exported to Microsoft Excel. Standard statistical equations were carried out to calculate standard deviations and averages. The data was then input into SPSS (PC program, version 16 for windows) to calculate if the training intervention has a significant effect upon VO2 max. For the analysis a 2(testing v control) x 2 (pre v post) MANOVA ( three dependant variables, vo2 ml/kg/min, VO2 l/min and peak wattage) will be used. All data is represented in mean and standard deviation. The statistical significance level is set at P Validity and reliability Validity is described as whether the researcher truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research results are. In a scientific experiment the aim is to manipulate a independant variable to produce an outcome on a dependant variable or variables. Once the researcher can confidently say that the changes in the dependant variable have been cause by the independant variable and no other factor the experiement is said to be internally valid (Levine et al 1994). This study is a valid and reliable study and several measures have been used to make sure of this Firstly a control, group was used. The reason being that it shows that it was the intervention that caused an increase in Vo2 max and peak wattage and no other outside factor and can provide a comparison. Another measure is that all participants were told not to alter any current training regimes so this would not affect pre or post test results. Proper calibration of gas analyzer was carried out to make sure Vo2 max values were precise. Throughout the wingate tests verbal encouragement was used to ensure that participants were giving their maximum effort into the training to obtain the best results. This intervention has been carried out before and shows that it is a protocol which is reliable and valid. Results All participants completed the 4 week training intervention. Each participant reported that they did not change their current training regimes outside of the intervention which may alter the results. The data was collected and then analysed. Results show that mean VO2 max in l/min, ml/kg/min and also peak wattage increased in the testing group after the intervention. Whereas the control groups data stayed similar due to no training intervention. Table 1.0: Mean VO2 MAX ML/KG/MIN, VO2 MAX L/MIN AND PEAK WATTAGE for Testing and control group. GROUP VO2 max ml/min/kg Vo2 max l/min Peak wattage Testing PRE 45.875 3.91 383.5 POST 50.125 4.315 396.125 Control 8.5% 9.4% 3.2% PRE 49 4.040 395.5 POST 48.875 4.050 397.125 Graph 1.0: Mean VO2 ml/kg/min pre and post training of testing and control groups. After the four week wingate training intervention, Vo2 max (ml/kg/min) in relative terms increased during the incremental vo2 max test. The mean difference in the testing group from pre to post tesing was 4.25 ml/kg/min, compared to the control groups mean difference of -0.125 ml/kg/min so the control groups mean relative Vo2 max decreased. Taking into account body weight this measure can be affected over time. One participant in the testing group started off with a weight of 118kg, at the end of the programme his weight dropped to 116kg, this caused the participant to have one of the biggest increases in relative VO2 max from 32 ml/kg/min to 41 ml/kg/min. Graph 1.1: Mean VO2 max l/min pre and post training for testing and control groups. Absolute Vo2 max (l/min) also increased in the testing group during the incremental Vo2 max test following the four week intervention. The mean difference pre and post testing in the training group was 0.405 l/min increase. Whereas the control group stayed the same with a 0.01 l/min increase. Graph 1.2: Peak wattage (w) pre and post training for testing and control groups. Mean peak wattage in the incremental Vo2 max test also increased following four weeks of wingate training in the testing group. This shows that participants who took part in the training programme could last longer during the post training Vo2 max test compared to the pre testing. This meant the time to exhaustion increased in the testing group. Mean peak wattage (w) increased from 383.5w to 396.125w showing a mean increase of 12.625w in the testing group. The control groups mean post peak wattage stayed similar with a mean increase of only 1.625w which was to be expected The data gathered from pre and post incremental test was input into the statistics programme SPSS to see if the increased found were statistically significant. The statistical test used was a 22 MANOVA. This test allowed me to compare groups (control and testing) and time (pre and post) to my three dependant variables (VO2 max ml/kg/min, l/min and peak wattage). Due to the three dependant variables a multi analysis of variance (MANOVA) had to be used. Mutlivariate analysis using pillails trace showed no significant difference in group (testing and control) on the Vo2 max in ml/kg/min, l/min and peak wattage, V=0.145, F(3,26)=0.145, P>0.05. Seperate Univariate ANOVAs were carried out on each variable and revealed no significant difference in group on VO2 max ml/kg/min F(1,28)=0.134, P>0.05. No significant difference was found in group on VO2 max l/min F(1,28)=0.094, P>0.05. Also no significant difference was found in group on peak wattage F(1,28)=0.364, P>0.05. This shows there was no significant difference in testing and control groups in terms of the three variables. Multivariate analysis using pillails trace showed no significant difference in time (pre and post) on the Vo2 max in ml/kg/min,l/min and peak wattage V=0.034, F(3,26)=0.306, P>0.821. Seperate univariate ANOVAS revealed no significant difference in time on Vo2 ml/kg/min F(1,28)=0.646, P>0.05, on Vo2 l/min F(1,28)=0.437, P>0.05 and on peak wattage F(1,28)=0.903, P>0.05. This shows there was no significant difference in pre and post results of the three variables. Multivariate analysis using pillais trace showed no significant difference in group (testing and control) x time(pre and post) on Vo2 max ml/kg/min, l/min and peak wattage V=0.037, F(3,26)=0.334, P>0.05. Univariate ANOVAS revealed no significant difference of group x time on Vo2 max ml/kg/min, F(1,28)=0.727, P>0.05. No significant difference was found for group x time on Vo2 max l/min, F(1,28)=0.822, P>0.05. Also no significant difference was found for group x time on peak wattage F(1,28)=0.261, P>0.05. This shows that testing group pre and post and control pre and post results were not statistically significant. Although these results did not show statistical significance, it cannot be ignored that they did show an increase. Despite that fact that the results were not significant all three variables increased following post testing. Results still show that the 4 week training programme was successful and the desired increases in Vo2 max (ml/kg/min, l/min) and peak wattage were achieved. Vo2 max in l/min saw the highest increase after the 4 week training intervention. Vo2 max l/min increased 9.4% in the testing group which is quite a considerable considering only 4 weeks of training was undertaken. Discussion Over the 4 week training programme all sprints were carried out at a maximal intensity with participants verbally encouraged to do so. This led the testing to be very uncomfortable and severely demanding, despite this the when adding up total cycle time at maximal intensity , participants only cycled for 18 minutes over the four weeks. Despite the fact that the intervention did not prouduce statistically significant results it did show that the intervention worked and increase the three variables. . This shows that with only 18 minutes of intense cycling through wingate tests can increase Vo2 max in relative an absolute terms and peak wattage by 3-10% in an incremental vo2 max test. Analysis of the evidence and relation to previous literature These results are similar to Bailey et al (2009) who used a similar intervention to the one use in this study. Bailey et al(2009) used one more wingate per session that this study (4 in week one increasing by one each week up to 7) and 4 minutes recovery time between each wingate. Results from this study showed a similar increase in Vo2 max, Bailey et al (2009) reported an increase in Vo2 peak of 8% which compared to the increase of 8.4% (ml/kg/min) and 9.5% (l/min) is very similar. This studys training programme may have had a slightly larger increases due to the 4 week programme compared to the 2 week training programme in Bailey et als (2009) study. Studies by Macdougall et al (1998)and Burgomaster et al (2008) also have reported increases of 7-8% in Vo2 max. Madougall et al (1998) also used the wingate based intervention but over a longer duration with a 7 week training programme and with 1 more session a week than the present study. Their results found a 7% increase in absolute Vo2 max and a 6.4% increase in relative Vo2 max. This is quite interesting considering the length and amount of sessions compared to the present study. The present study produced higher values in absolute and relative Vo2 max over four weeks. Macdougall et al (1998) also went up to 10 training intervals by the end of the study. This could potentially show that optimal time to obtain training adaptations could be around 4 weeks. Burgomaster et al (2006) also used a winagte protocol as its training intervention. Thier results are similar to what is found in this study. Vo2 max did increase after the 2 week training programme but after statistical analysis is was shown that this increase was not significant which is the same in the present study. Rodas et al (2000) also showed increases in Vo2 max after a short term interval training programme constsing of a mixture of 15 seconds and 30 second all out sprints which increase in number of the two week training programme. After the traini ng programme maximal progressive test were carried out to obtain post test value of Vo2 max (ml.min.kg) and peak wattage, two of the variables being testing in this study. Results showed an increase of around 10% in Vo2 max (ml.kg.min) and a 9% increase in peak wattage in the maximal progressive test. This increase of the 2 weeks is similar to the data reported in this study. This increases the validity of the present study that two out of the three variables measured in this study are also reported in Rodas et al (2000) study. Gibala and Mcgee (2008) reviewed the wingate based training intervention with studies of 4-6 wingates per session with 4 minute rest intervals which is similar to the present study. This review also concluded no changes in Vo2 max after the training intervention in studies by burgomaster 2005, 2006. One reason being why no reported increase in Vo2 max was seen is due to the length of the training programme. Gibala and Mcgee actually report this in their review. They compare the work load of Burgomaster (2005) which they review and state that studies by rodas et al (2000) and talanian et al (2007) had a greater work load than Burgomaster (2005) which could be one reason for no change in Vo2 max. Iaia et al (2008) also showed no increase Vo2 max following a 4 week training intervention. As you can see there is mixed evidence towards the wingate based protocol as a training intervention to elicit improvements in VO2 max performance. Although some of these studies did not show increases in VO2 max, other performance based improvements occurred. For example burgomaster et al (2005,2006) showed increases in time trial performance following four weeks of wingate based interval training. Despite some evidence to the contrary and statistical analysis showing the data in this study to not be significant, the fact that percentage increases in VO2 max are very similar to what has been reported in other studies. There can be many reasons to why high intensity interval training can increase VO2 max. The wingate test can be a very demanding test and is primarily used as a measurement of anaerobic capacity, showing peak power, average power and fatigue rates. Macdougall (1998) states that oxidative metabolism has a minor contribution to the energy delivered during each wingate test, although slievert at al (1995) says that the contribution of oxidative metabolism probably increased with every interval. The fact that using a wingate test with repeated intervals, participants can reach 140-210% Vo2 max during each interval, this shows that training at intensities above Vo2 max can be more important than the volume of training and can stimulate increases in muscle oxidative pot ential (Macdougall et al 1998). Common responses to HIT in moderately active individuals is the expression of type 1 fibres, capillirisation and oxidative enzyme activity (linossier et al 2003, Mcdougall et al 1998). The recovery phase of the wingate based training programme can have an important part to play in obtaining improvements in Vo2 max and other performance parameters. Passive recovery during the rest periods between each interval has been reviewed by billat (2001), because high levels of lactate develop during interval training performed at an intensity above the lactate threshold, active recovery facilitates this removal (hermansen and stensvold 1972). This removal allows althletes to tolerate heavy work rates for longer period of time ( Billat et al 2000). The rest days between each wingate session are also important. Rodas et al (2000) found significant increases in oxidative and glycolytic enzyme activity after two weeks of sprint training but this was no change in wingate performance after only one days rest. This improves the validity my results as partipants had more than one days rest between each wingate training session. Critical evaluation of the method One factor that could affect the amount of increase in Vo2 max could be baseline levels of Vo2 max. Participants with low baseline Vo2 are going to see larger increases than participants who already have higher fitness levels. Although as I have mentioned before Landree (1997) states in highly trained individuals further improvements in performance can only occur via high intensity interval training. One major reason why the results of this study did not prove significant is the standard deviation. Participants with low baseline levels before the intervention may have showed an improvement in VO2 max and peak wattage but this improvement may still not have got them to the level of another participants baseline level. For example one participant increased their Vo2 max (ml.kg.min) from a baseline level of 39 ml.kg.min to a post intervention score of 50 ml.kg.min but this increase still did not get their Vo2 max level to the same as 4 other participants baseline. This variety in differ ent peoples Vo2 max could be a reason why significant results were not obtained. A good comparison can be made between this study and Bailey et al (2009) due to similar participants being used. Their study used young adults with a mean age of 21 SD 4 which is a similar age to the participants in this study. One factor that could have been improved in this study is a larger sample s

Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre :: Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre Essays

Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre "There was no possibility of taking a walk that day....I was glad of it; I never liked long walks, especially on chilly afternoons: dreadful to me was the coming home in the raw twilight, with nipped fingers and toes, and a heart saddened by the chidings of Bessie, the nurse, and humbled by the consciousness of my physical inferiority to Eliza, John, and Georgiana Reed." So goes the opening to the novel 'Jane Eyre' by Charlotte Bronte. We are immediately brought into the story; the scene has been set and feelings exposed. As can be seen in this quotation, Bronte creates a very friendly, easy opening, attempting to make an intimate relationship with the reader. The characters most personal feelings are openly displayed, this being very uncommon in 19th century novels. In 'Jane Eyre' Bronte writes in the first person, giving the novel a more autobiographical feel. These paragraphs also give us an example of pathetic fallacy, a technique repeatedly used by Bronte throughout the earlier chapters of 'Jane Eyre'. In addition to this we are shown Jane's dislike, as a child and adult, of the Reed children and her position and inadequacy in the Reed household; Gateshead. The portrayal of life with the Reed family and Jane's whole childhood, is one both cruel and fascinating. Bronte, through Jane's eyes and thoughts, manages to convey life and the world from a child's perspective, while still maintaining an adult's way of thinking. Jane is very perceptive and intelligent, and this shown when she is faced with John Reed. Her fear of him is immediately appears when he interrupts her peace while she is reading, and she states how she "trembled at the idea of being dragged forth" by him. As the readers, we are shown how she must have been treated in such a way that she has become fearful of her own cousins. Moreover, when John tells Jane to refer to him as 'Master', we are shown how socially inferior and insignificant she is to them, and is constantly being reminded of this. Right from the beginning of the novel Jane's sense of loneliness and isolation is evident form the way she hides herself behind thick curtains in a deserted room, neglected by her cousins and aunt. The description of John Reed given to us by Jane is extremely visual and detailed and we are shown that, although of a young age, Jane is very sensitive, alert and prudent of people and the world around her. Mrs Reed, while remaining a minor character, becomes one of the most influential people in Jane Eyre's life, although still not

Labor Law of Singapore Essay

In Singapore, for employment to be valid there must be a contract that has been agreed upon between the employers and the employee/s. In principle, employer and employee could enter into contractual obligations without a written contract. According to Sharon Bernhardt, that Singapore is known for its thriving business economy as well according to the WEF Global Competitiveness Report, Singapore is the most competitive economy in Asia, ranking third in the world and following only Switzerland and the United States. It is a common practice in Singapore for businesses to utilize employment contracts with their employees. There are no specific guidelines for employment contracts in the Employment Act. However, a contract in Singapore typically contains information about duties, salary, work hours, benefits and termination. Employment contracts are also typically documented in writing to preserve documentation. I. The Employment Act Labour Laws in Singapore is stated through the Employment Act. As stated in the AGC Singapore site, that â€Å"the Employment Act covers every employee (regardless of nationality) who is under a contract of service with an employer†, except: a. Any person employed in a managerial or executive position b. Any seaman; c. Any domestic worker; and d. Any person employed by a Statutory Board or the Government. It is also stated that part IV of the Act, which provides for rest days, hours of work and other conditions of service, applies only to: a. Workmen earning not more than $4,500 basic monthly salaries and b. Employees earning not more than $2,000 basic monthly salaries. A. Managers & Executives under this Employment Act In Singapore, managers and executives are employees with executive or supervisory functions. These functions include the authority to influence or make decision on issues such as recruitment, discipline, termination of employment, assessment of performance and reward, or involvement in the formulation of strategies and policies of the enterprise, or the management and running of the business. They also include professionals with tertiary education and specialised knowledge/skills and whose employment terms are comparable to those of managers and executives. Professionals such as lawyers, accountants, dentists and doctors whose nature and terms of employment are comparable to executives would generally be deemed as such, and hence they would not be covered under the Act. Junior managers and executives earning $4,500 basic monthly salary and below are only covered partially on the basic payment of salary. All other provisions do not apply to them. B. The Workforce In the scope of Labor Laws of Singapore, a workman is an employee whose work involves manual labour. This includes a worker who falls under any of the following categories: a. Any person, skilled or unskilled, doing manual work, including any artisan or apprentice but excluding any seaman or domestic servant; b. Any person, other than clerical staff, employed in the operation or maintenance of mechanically propelled vehicles that transport passengers, for hire or commercial purposes; c. Any person employed to supervise any workman and perform manual work. However, this is subject to the requirement that the time spent on manual work must be more than half of the total working time in a salary period; or d. Any person specified in the First Schedule of the Employment Act, namely: i. a. Cleaners; b. Construction workers; c. Labourers; d. Machine operators and assemblers; e. Metal and machinery workers; f. Train,bus, lorry and van drivers; g. Train and bus inspectors;and h. All workmen employed on piece rates at the employer’s premises. It covers both local and foreign employees. It does not make any distinction between a temporary employee, contract employee, daily-rated employee or employee on tenured employment. For employees working less than 35 hours a week, they are covered by the Employment of Part-Time Employees Regulations, which provide certain flexibility for both the employers and employees, including the pro-rating of employment benefits, encashment of annual leave and provision of rest day. C. Wages/Salary According to â€Å"Guide Me Singapore† by Janus Corporate Solutions, the only stipulation in the Employment Act is that employees are paid in a timely manner (employees must be paid at least once a month).Thus, there is no minimum wage for workers in Singapore Many companies do give an annual bonus of an extra month’s salary, but this is not a required practice. Work hours are regulated for employees who earn less than $2,000 SGD per month. According to the Employment Act, these workers may not be required to work more than eight hours a day or 44 hours per week. They are also entitled to a break after six hours of work. Employees in management or higher positions may work more hours depending on the terms outlined in their contract. D. Hours of Work, Overtime & Rest Days As stated in the part IV of the Employment Act & Section 33 are applicable only to: a. Workmen earning not more than $4,500 basic monthly salaries; and b. Other employees earning not more than $2,000 basic monthly salaries (excluding, overtime, bonus, Annual Wage Supplement, productivity incentives and allowances). E. Maximum working hours In Singapore, an employee is not allowed to work for more than 12 hours within a day except in the following circumstances: a. Accident or threat of accident; b. Work that is essential to: i. the life of the community; ii. national defence; or iii. security; c. Urgent work to be done to machinery or plant; or d. An interruption of work which was impossible to foresee. Thus, an employee can be required to work up to 12 hours a day if the employee gives his consent in writing, after the provisions of Sections 38 and 40 of the Employment Act have been clearly explained to him. He must be informed of the daily working hours, the number of working days in each week and the weekly rest day. Employers that require their employees to work more than 12 hours (maximum 14 hours) a day are required under section 40 of the Employment Act, to apply for overtime exemption from the Ministry of Manpower. F. Break time The duration of the break(s) should be no less than 45 minutes. An employee is generally not required to work more than six consecutive hours without a break. However, if the nature of work is such that it must be carried on continuously, an employee may be required to work eight hours continuously. In such an instance, a break or breaks must be given so that the employee can have his/her meal(s). G. Normal hours of work An employee covered by Part IV of the Employment Act is not required under his/her contract of service to work more than eight hours in a day or 44 hours in a week. * The limit of eight hours per day may be exceeded when an employee is not required to work more than five days a week. However, he/she is not required to work for more than nine hours per day or 44 hours in a week. * If the number of hours worked is less than 44 hours every alternate week, the limit of 44 hours a week may be exceeded in the other week. However, this must be stated in the contract of service and is subject to a maximum of 48 hours in one week or 88 hours in any continuous two week period. A shift worker is allowed to work up to 12 hours a day, provided that the average working hours each week do not exceed 44 over a continuous three week period. If the employee’s rest day falls on a day other than a Sunday, the employer is required to prepare a monthly roster and inform him of his rest days for the month at the beginning of each month. H. Overtime allowance Overtime allowance is payable if the employee is required by the employer to work above the limit of working hours specified above. All work in excess of the normal hours of work (excluding break time) is considered as overtime work. An employee must be paid no less than 1.5 times his/her hourly basic rate of pay for overtime. Payment for overtime work must be made within 14 days after the last day of the salary period. I. Maximum hours of overtime An employee is permitted to work up to a limit of 72 hours of overtime in a month. However, this limit may be exceeded if the Ministry of Manpower has granted an exemption under section 38 of the Employment Act. Employers that require their employees to work more than 72 hours of overtime in a month are required under section 38 of the Employment Act, to apply for overtime exemption from the Ministry of Manpower. For work done on rest days or public holidays it is not included in the 72 hours’ limit for overtime. However, if an employee works beyond his normal daily working hours on his rest day or public holiday, the extra hours of work done would be included in the 72 hours’ limit for overtime work. The rate of payment for an employee who works overtime on his rest day and public holiday should be paid at not less than one and a half times his hourly basic rate of pay for the overtime work (as in the case of overtime work on any other day), in addition to his rest day or public holiday pay. J. Rest days An employee covered by Part IV of the Employment Act is entitled to a rest day comprising one whole day (midnight to midnight) every week. The rest day can be on a Sunday or any other day. The employer should determine the rest day and inform the employee before the beginning of each month. It is not a paid day. Employer cannot compel employees to work on rest day unless under very exceptional circumstances. The longest allowable interval between two rest days is 12 days. This can occur where in one week, the rest day is given on Monday, which is at the beginning of the working week. In the following week, the rest day is on Sunday, which is at the end of next working week. This will enable an employee to take two rest days at a stretch and allow an employer greater flexibility in the rostering of rest days. For a shift worker, the rest day can be a continuous period of 30 hours. A 30-hour rest period that commences before 6pm on a Sunday will be considered as one rest day within the week, even though the 30-hour period will extend into the next week, i.e. on Monday. K. Payment for work done on a rest day Payment for work done on a rest day should be calculated as such: a. Work done at employer’s request: * One day’s salary when the employee works up to half the normal daily working hours; or * Two days’ salary when the employee works more than half the normal daily working hours. a. Work done at employee’s request: * Half day’s salary when the employee works up to half the normal daily working hours; or * One day’s salary when the employee works more than half the normal daily working hours. If an employee works beyond the normal daily working hours on a rest day, he/she should be paid at least 1.5 times the hourly basic rate of pay. L. Benefits Other benefits outlined in the Singapore Employment Act include the following: a. sick leave, b. annual leave, c. maternity leave and holidays. Many companies actually offer better benefits than what is required by the Employment Act, though employers are not required to offer employees private health insurance. All Singaporean citizens pay into a government health plan through their employer. II. Fair Employment Singapore is a meritocratic society and implementing fair and merit-based employment practices is the right thing to do. Singapore also has a diverse workforce in terms of its ethnic, religious, age and gender makeup. It will be increasingly so in terms of age and gender, as our population ages and as we encourage more women to enter the workforce. Implementing fair and merit-based employment practices widens the pool of candidates that employers can recruit from, increasing their chances of finding the best person for the job. Treating employees fairly and with respect also helps employers to retain valued employees to sustain and grow their businesses. Employees will also be more motivated to put in their best for the organisation. The Tripartite Alliance for Fair Employment Practices (TAFEP) works with employer organisations, unions and the Government to create awareness and facilitate the adoption of fair employment practices. TAFEP was formed in pursuant to the recommendation of the Tripartite Committee on Employability of Older Workers to promote employment practices that are fair and equitable to all workers. The Alliance is co-chaired by Mr Heng Chee How, Deputy Secretary-General, National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) and Mr Bob Tan, Vice President, Singapore National Employers Federation (SNEF). The Alliance also includes members representing the employers, workers/unions, and the Government. III. Singapore Labour Laws for foreign workers In Singapore, minimum monthly salary of employment pass (EP) holders is S$2,500 (P77, 500). The â€Å"S† pass took effect July 1, 2004, catering to skilled workers at middle level with minimum salary of S$1,800 (P55, 800). â€Å"S† pass holders who earn basic monthly salary of at least S$2,500 (P77, 500) can take their spouse and children to Singapore. Professional licenses issued in the Philippines are not recognized. Filipino engineers and architects cannot sign on their project documents. WP (work permit) category includes domestic helper, nursing aide, healthcare assistant, technician and other positions that do not require special skills and college degree. Salaries for work permits are below S$1,800 (P55, 800) monthly. Work permits are valid for two years and maybe renewed with the Ministry of Manpower. Conditions of work permit holders as follows: a. Must possess high school diploma for continued employment in the City State; b. Can only work for employer/company and in occupation stated in his/her work permit card; c. Shall not get involved in any illegal, immoral or undesirable activities in Singapore –e.g. drugs, crime, prostitution, breaking up families; d. Shall not cohabit or have any children with a Singapore Citizen or Permanent President; e. Shall abide by conditions relating to marriage to a Singapore Citizen or Permanent Resident, as stated in conditions of work permit; f. Shall present self for medical examination by a registered Singapore doctor when requested by Controller of WP; g. WP card must be surrendered to the Work Permit Department upon completion, resignation or termination of employment; and h. Shall carry his/her work permit card at all times. IV. Restrictions Singapore’s Employment Act does not cover domestic helpers. Hence, most problematic of OFWs there are the DHs. Common problems DHs encounter are: being made to work in more than one household, exorbitant placement fees, non-payment of salaries, lack of valid employment contract as basis for settlement of claims/complaints, rare or even no days off, being made to do dangerous work (e.g. window cleaning in high-rise residence), and refusal of employer to attend to medical needs of sick domestic helpers. Singapore observes â€Å"open market† policy for domestic workers. Filipino women enter into contractual relationships without guidance from the Philippine government or its representative. They are subjected to excessive deductions from salaries by recruiters both in the Philippines and Singapore. In many cases, the terms and conditions of these employment contracts are below, or are non-compliant with the standards set by the POEA. Employers of DHs must inform the Ministry of Manpower (MOM) within 12 hours of their knowledge of death of their domestic workers. Employment agencies are prohibited from displaying foreign domestic workers. Any display of maids is considered a violation of Section 1, c of Employment Agency Act and could lead to withdrawal of agency’s license. Since May 3, 2004, work permits can be cancelled by simply sending a fax message to the MOM. Employers must submit to MOM the residential address of their foreign workers for easy monitoring in cases of emergency. Effective April 2004, first-time employers and domestic workers must attend seminars at MOM before issuance of work permit. SOURCES: http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId%3A%22571f13ea-3a91-47ef-a07b-f45d12fc2101%22%20Status%3Apublished%20Depth%3A0;rec=0 http://www.ehow.com/list_5989991_labor-laws-singapore.html http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/42715/pinoyabroad/singapore-labor-laws-for-foreign-workers http://www.guidemesingapore.com/incorporation/hr/singapore-employment-act-guide

Reading Strategy Essay

What Is It? To aid their comprehension, skillful readers ask themselves questions before, during, and after they read. You can help students become more proficient by modeling this process for them and encouraging them to use it when they read independently. Why Is It Important? Dolores Durkin’s research in 1979 showed that most teachers asked students questions after they had read, as opposed to questioning to improve comprehension before or while they read. In the late 1990s, further research (Pressley, et al.1998) Revealed that despite the abundance of research supporting questioning before, during, and after reading to help comprehension, teachers still favored post-reading comprehension questions. Researchers have also found that when adult readers are asked to â€Å"think aloud† as they read, they employ a wide variety of comprehension strategies, including asking and answering questions before, during, and after reading (Pressley and Afflerbach 1995). Proficient adult readers: Are aware of why they are reading the text Preview and make predictions Read selectively Make connections and associations with the text based on what they already know. Refine predictions and expectations Use context to identify unfamiliar words Reread and make notes Evaluate the quality of the text Review important points in the text Consider how the information might be used in the future Successful reading is not simply the mechanical process of â€Å"decoding† text. Rather, it is a process of active inquiry. Good readers approach a text with questions and develop new questions as they read, for example: â€Å"What is this story about? † â€Å"What does the main character want? † â€Å"Will she get it? † â€Å"If so, how? † Even after reading, engaged readers still ask questions: â€Å"What is the meaning of what I have read? † â€Å"Why did the author end the paragraph (or chapter, or book) in this way? † â€Å"What was the author’s purpose in writing this? † Good authors anticipate the reader’s questions and plant questions in the reader’s mind (think of a title such as, Are You My Mother? by P. D. Eastman). In this way, reading becomes a collaboration between the reader and the author. The author’s job is to raise questions and then answer them – or provide several possible answers. Readers cooperate by asking the right questions, paying careful attention to the author’s answers, and asking questions of their own. HOW CAN YOU MAKE IT HAPPEN? To help readers learn to ask questions before, during, and after reading, think aloud the next time you are reading a book, article, or set of directions. Write each question on a post-it note and stick it on the text you have the question about. You may be surprised at how many typically unspoken questions you ponder, ask, and answer as you read. You may wonder as you read or after you read at the author’s choice of title, at a vocabulary word, or about how you will use this information in the future. You should begin to model these kinds of questions in the primary grades during read-aloud times, when you can say out loud what you are thinking and asking. Read a book or text to the class, and model your thinking and questioning. Emphasize that even though you are an adult reader, questions before, during, and after reading continue to help you gain an understanding of the text you are reading. Ask questions such as: â€Å"What clues does the title give me about the story? † â€Å"Is this a real or imaginary story? † â€Å"Why am I reading this? † â€Å"What do I already know about___? † â€Å"What predictions can I make? â€Å" Pre-select several stopping points within the text to ask and answer reading questions. Stopping points should not be so frequent that they hinder comprehension or fluid reading of a text. This is also an excellent time to model â€Å"repair strategies† to correct miscomprehension. Start reading the text, and ask yourself questions while reading: â€Å"What do I understand from what I just read? † â€Å"What is the main idea? † â€Å"What picture is the author painting in my head? † â€Å"Do I need to reread so that I understand? † Then reread the text, asking the following questions when you are finished: â€Å"Which of my predictions were right? What information from the text tells me that I am correct? † â€Å"What were the main ideas? † â€Å"What connections can I make to the text? How do I feel about it? † Encourage students to ask their own questions after you have modeled this strategy, and write all their questions on chart paper. Students can be grouped to answer one another’s questions and generate new ones based on discussions. Be sure the focus is not on finding the correct answers, because many questions may be subjective, but on curiosity, wondering, and asking thoughtful questions. After students become aware of the best times to ask questions during the reading process, be sure to ask them a variety of questions that: Can be used to gain a deeper understanding of the text Have answers that might be different for everyone Have answers that can be found in the text Clarify the author’s intent Can help clarify meaning Help them make inferences Help them make predictions Help them make connections to other texts or prior knowledge As students begin to read text independently, you should continue to model the questioning process and encourage students to use it often. In the upper elementary and middle school grades, a framework for questions to ask before, during, and after reading can serve as a guide as students work with more challenging texts and begin to internalize comprehension strategies. You can use an overhead projector to jot notes on the framework as you â€Å"think aloud† while reading a text. As students become comfortable with the questioning strategy, they may use the guide independently while reading, with the goal of generating questions before, during, and after reading to increase comprehension. How Can You Stretch Students’ Thinking? The best way to stretch students’ thinking about a text is to help them ask increasingly challenging questions. Some of the most challenging questions are â€Å"Why? † questions about the author’s intentions and the design of the text. For example: â€Å"Why do you think the author chose this particular setting? † â€Å"Why do you think the author ended the story in this way? † â€Å"Why do you think the author chose to tell the story from the point of view of the daughter? † â€Å"What does the author seem to be assuming about the reader’s political beliefs? † Another way to challenge readers is to ask them open-ended question that require evidence from the text to answer. For example: â€Å"What does Huck think about girls? What is your evidence? † â€Å"Which character in the story is most unlike Anna? Explain your reasons, based on evidence from the novel? † â€Å"What is the author’s opinion about affirmative action in higher education? How do you know? † Be sure to explicitly model your own challenging questions while reading aloud a variety of texts, including novels, subject-area textbooks, articles, and nonfiction. Help students see that answering challenging questions can help them understand text at a deeper level, ultimately making reading a more enjoyable and valuable experience. As students become proficient in generating challenging questions, have them group the questions the time they were asked (before, during or after reading). Students can determine their own categories, justify their reasons for placing questions into the categories, and determine how this can help their reading comprehension. When Can You Use It? Reading/English Students who have similar interests can read the same text and meet to discuss their thoughts in a book club. Members can be given a set of sticky notes to mark questions they have before, during, and after reading the text. Members can then share their question with one another to clarify understanding within their group. Since students’ reading level may not necessarily determine which book club they choose to join, accommodations may need to be made, including buddy reading, audio recordings of the text, or the use of computer-aided reading systems. Writing  Good writers anticipate their readers’ questions. Have students jot down the questions they will attempt to answer in an essay or short story before they write it, in the order that they plan to answer them. Stress that this should not be a mechanical process – as students write they probably will think of additional questions to ask and answer. The key point is to have students think of themselves as having a conversation with the reader – and a big part of this is knowing what questions the reader is likely to ask. Math Students can ask questions before, during, and after solving a math problem. Have students think aloud or write in groups to generate questions to complete performance tasks related to mathematics. Social Studies Use before, during, and after questions when beginning a new chapter or unit of study in any social studies topic. Select a piece of text, and have students generate questions related to the topic. At the end of the unit of study, refer back to the questions and discuss how the questions helped students to understand the content. Science Use before, during, and after questions to review an article or science text. You can discuss articles related to a recent scientific discovery with students and then generate questions that would help them to focus their attention on important information. Lesson Plans Lesson Plan: Questioning, The Mitten This lesson is designed to introduce primary students to the importance of asking questions before, during, and after listening to a story. In this lesson, using the story The Mitten by Jan Brett, students learn how to become good readers by asking questions. This is the first lesson in a set of questioning lessons designed for primary grades. Lesson Plan: Questioning, Grandfather’s Journey. This lesson is for intermediate students using the strategy with the book, Grandfather’s Journey, by Allen Say. Lesson Plan: Questioning, Koko’s Kitten This lesson is designed to establish primary students’ skills in asking questions before, during, and after they listen to a story. You can help students learn to become better readers by modeling how and when you ask questions while reading aloud the true story, Koko’s Kitten, by Dr. Francine Patterson. This is the second lesson in a set of questioning lessons designed for primary grades. Lesson Plan: Asking Pre-Reading Questions This is a language arts lesson for students in grades 3-5. Students will learn about asking questions before reading and will make predictions based on the discussion of the questions. Lesson Plan: Asking Questions When Reading In this lesson, the teacher will read The Wall by Eve Bunting with the purpose of focusing on asking important questions. The students and the teacher will then categorize the questions according to the criteria for each.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Original URL: http://www. teachervision. fen. com/lesson-plan/reading-comprehension/48698. html Asking Questions When Reading Grade Levels: 4 – 8 Lesson Summary. Generating questions plays a key role in the process of learning how to read, and then again in learning how to read better. There are so many question that students may have about the text that they encounter – questions about the author’s style or purpose, questions about new vocabulary, questions about what might happen, etc. Students need to first begin to feel comfortable asking questions, then learn to ask the vital questions that will direct their focus and clear up confusion. In this lesson, the teacher will read The Wall by Eve Bunting with the purpose of focusing on asking important questions. The students and the teacher will then categorize the questions according to the criteria for each. Materials When you read the story ahead of time, write any questions that pop into your head on post-it notes and have them available. Provide large pieces of paper and post-its for students, and locate enough copies of the book The Wall for partners. Provide a piece of paper for each group of four students. Prepare a piece of chart paper titled QUESTIONS with different columns of categories: Questions that are answered in the text Questions that I have to make an inference to answer Questions that are not important to understanding the story. Questions that require research to answer Questions about the author’s style Questions that clear up confusion Objectives: Students will ask questions before, during, and after reading. Students will categorize important vs. interesting questions with a focus on important questions. Procedure Explain that good readers ask questions before, during, and after reading to help them understand a story better. â€Å"Today, we’re going to focus on asking questions. † Present the book The Wall to the students and say, â€Å"I will read the title, and the back cover and look at the illustrations and think of as many questions as I can. These are the questions that I have before reading. † Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. Read the story to the children and think aloud, asking questions while reading. Stress that these are the questions you have during reading. Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. When you have finished reading the story, ask questions that pop into your head and stress that these are the questions that you have after reading. Read your prepared post-it notes to the students. Take your questions on post-its, think aloud, and categorize them in the appropriate column according to the type of question that you asked. The students partner-read and use post-its on pages where they have a question. Have partners narrow their questions down to two questions. Then have the partners share their questions with another paired group. The groups of four students choose one of their questions and write it on a larger piece of paper. Gather all students and have them share their questions. With help from the class, have students categorize their questions. Discuss the questions that are important vs. interesting, and have students focus on the important questions.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Original URL: http://www. teachervision. fen. com/lesson-plan/reading-comprehension/48697. html Asking Pre-Reading Questions Grade Levels: 3 – 5 Lesson Summary This is a language arts lesson for students in grades 3-5. Students will learn about asking questions before reading and will make predictions based on the discussion of the questions. Students should be able to differentiate between a question and a statement, generate questions, and work in cooperative, heterogeneous groups. Objectives Students will brainstorm prior knowledge about the topic of a text Students will make predictions about the text by asking effective â€Å"before† reading questions in order to improve our reading comprehension. Key Understandings Asking and discussing questions will improve our comprehension of the text. Good readers ask questions before they read. Materials Two narrative texts Pre-reading Show Rubric Pledge Procedure Select two narrative texts, one will be used to demonstrate the â€Å"before reading† questioning strategy, the other will be used for guided practice. It may be easier to choose two texts by the same author or two texts of the same genre. Discuss the ways in which a pre-game show and asking questions before, during, and after reading are similar. Good readers are like sports casters. Just as sports casters discuss the sports event before, during, and after the game, good readers ask and discuss questions before, during, and after reading. This improves comprehension, or understanding, of the text. You may say something such as, â€Å"Who has watched a football, basketball, or baseball game on television? Sports casters help us understand the game by discussing it. They discuss the game with us before the game, during the game and after the game. Before the game, there is a pre-game analysis. That means that the announcer gives us background information about the game, teams, players, and coaches. This information can be used to make predictions about the outcome of the game. During the game, the announcers provide play-by-play coverage. They discuss important or controversial plays to help us understand what’s going on in the game and to explain how certain plays may affect the outcome of the game. They even provide replays of the most important events of the game to make sure we remember them. Finally, after the game, announcers interview the coaches and players to get different perspectives about how the game was played. They review the highlights of the game, confirm or disprove their predictions, and discuss the implications of the outcome of the game. † Tell students they are going to focus on asking questions before they begin reading a text. If possible, show a video clip of a pre-game sports cast. Use the analogy of a pre-game show and before reading questions to help students ask effective â€Å"before† reading questions. As you generate questions for each topic. Spend some time wondering about the answers and making predictions about the book. Write your predictions about the book in a separate column. Identify a purpose for reading the text. Narrative = for literary experience/enjoyment Expository = for information Functional = to perform a task/follow directions. Examine the cover illustration and read the title, modeling how to ask questions. Write the questions on chart paper or on an overhead projector. Look at the author and model how to generate questions. Activate background knowledge by taking a picture walk with students. Cover the print with sticky notes, and think aloud as you model how to generate questions, make predictions, and build vocabulary by carefully examining and discussing the illustrations in the text. Ask questions about the setting, characters, events, and genre of the book. Pre-Game Show Questions Before Reading Predictions Team A vs. Team B What teams are playing? What do we know about these teams? Where are they from? Have we ever seen either team play? In your opinion, are they skilled? Is one team better than the other? Title of Story/Cover What topic might this story be about? What do we already know about this topic? Have we read any other books about this topic? Do we have any experience related to this topic? Where and when did we have the experience? Coach Who is the coach? What do we know about the coach? What teams has he/she coached in the past? What is his/her coaching style? Author Who is the author? Who is the illustrator? What books have he/she written or illustrated in the past? Can we describe the style of the author/illustrator? Have I ever read other texts by this author? If so, what do I remember about those texts? Stadium Where is the game being played? Who has the home field advantage? What are the current weather conditions? How will the weather conditions affect the game? Setting Where and when does the story take place? Is the place/time familiar or unfamiliar to us? Have we read any other stories with a similar setting? Players Who are the key players? What positions do they play? What are their skills? Characters Who are the main characters? What role might they play in the story? Can we predict some of their character traits by examining the illustrations? Plays What plays are the coaches likely to run? Events What events may take place in this story? Rules/Principles of Game What are the rules of the game? What are winning strategies? Genre of Text What genre of story is this? (fairytale, folktale) Have we read other stories of the same genre? What are the characteristics of this genre? Tell students that the class will read the story together tomorrow, and learn to ask new questions while they are reading to help understand the story. Guided practice Give students the opportunity to practice writing and discussing some â€Å"before† reading questions for a new story. Place students in 6 groups and have each group record or role play a â€Å"pre-reading show† for the new book, just as sports casters broadcast a pre-game show. 1. title/cover 2. author/illustrator 3. setting 4. characters 5. events 6. genre of literature Select student leaders to guide each groups through the process of examining the cover of the new story and taking a picture walk. Allow groups to discuss their topic. Students should generate two of their own â€Å"before reading† questions on their topic, and then share their questions and provide feedback to each other. Have groups include information from their prior knowledge and personal experience as they discuss the â€Å"before reading† questions, and have them discuss the possible answers and make predictions about the book. After each student has had the opportunity to formulate and write two questions, jigsaw the groups to form TV crews for a â€Å"pre-reading† show. Each TV crew should have six students, one student from each group, 1-6. Review the parts of the rubric. Provide a time limit for each TV show, and tell students that each show should include: an introduction of the members of the TV crew slogan, jingle, or music a discussion of their prior knowledge about the topic a discussion of each member’s questions predictions about the book from each member Give groups the opportunity to practice asking and discussing their questions before role playing or videotaping their show. If time permits, allow students to make larger visual aids to display during the discussion. â€Å"Microphones† can be made quickly from rolling paper into tubes. Sharing Ideas Distribute rubrics to the class. Allow students to score each TV crew as they present. Independent Practice Have students think of a younger child that they will spend time with this week. Have them think of a book that they can read to the child. Have students use some of the â€Å"before reading† questioning strategies they learned to help the younger child understand the story. Students can use this questions framework worksheet to help them with questions to ask before reading, and help the child make predictions. The worksheet reminds students to ask questions about the title and cover, author and illustrator, setting, characters, events and genre. Assessment Each group will be assessed using the scores from the presentation rubric, scored by their peers and teacher.  © 2000-2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Running Records Page Description: A running record is a way to assess a student’s reading progress by systematically evaluating a student’s oral reading and identifying error patterns. This template will help you track your students’ oral reading accuracy. Take advantages from kids that love harry potter Book Covers from Around the World: Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban Page Description: Enjoy comparing and contrasting colorful cover art for J. K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban with this printable handout. Discuss the differences in interpretations from around the world with your students. Grade Levels: 2 – 7 Analyzing a Book Character Page Description: This chart of questions will help students analyze the cover art of a book. Use this worksheet when talking about the different cover art on each international edition of the Harry Potter books. Grade Levels: 3 – 8 Literacy Glossary Page 1 of 2 Accuracy Rate: This is the rate, shown as a percent, at which students accurately read the text. Concept Map: A concept map is a type of graphic organizer which allows students to consider relationships among various concepts. Often students are encouraged to draw arrows between related concepts enclosed in oval or other shapes. Error Rate: This is a ratio of errors to words in the text. Fluency: The rate and accuracy with which a person reads. Fluency results from practicing reading skills often and with a high rate of success. Formative Assessment: These tests are ongoing and based on the curriculum, providing a way to monitor student progress. They can be used to place students in groups, based on instructional needs. Frustrational Level: This is the level at which students are unable to read with adequate comprehension. Genre: A genre is a particular type of literature, such as narratives, poetry, dramas, or fables. Independent Level: This is the level at which students can read without assistance. Materials at this level should be chosen for independent reading, or fluency practice. Independent Reading Inventories: An informal formative assessment that provides graded word lists and passages designed to assess the oral reading and listening comprehension. Insertion: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students add another word when reading printed text. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"The dog played,† the student reads: â€Å"The happy dog played. † Instructional Level: This is the level at which students can read with assistance from the teacher. Materials at this level should be chosen for reading instruction. Metacognition: This is thinking about one’s own thinking, or being aware of one’s own learning. When students are aware of how they think and learn, they can be taught to regulate their thought and learning processes. Omission: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students do not read a word or words in the printed text. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"The sky was bright blue,† the student reads: â€Å"The sky was blue. † Onset: The part of a syllable that comes before the vowel of a syllable. The onset of the word box is /b/. Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound. It distinguishes one word from another (e. g. , man and fan are distinguished by the initial phoneme). Phonemic Awareness: This is a type of phonological awareness that involves the awareness and manipulation of individual sounds. Phonological Awareness: The auditory awareness of sounds, words, and sentences. The understanding that speech is composed of sentences made up of words. Words are comprised of syllables, and syllables are comprised of phonemes. Qualitative Data: Qualitative data consist of verbal or graphic descriptions of behavior and experience resulting from processes of observation, interpretation, and analysis. It is often comprehensive, holistic, and expansive. Qualitative Tools: These are tools that produce qualitative data consisting of verbal or graphic descriptions of behavior and experience resulting from processes of observation, interpretation, and analysis. Quantitative Data: Quantitative data consist of information represented in the form of numbers that can be analyzed by means of descriptive or inferential statistics. It is often precise and narrow data. Reading Conferences: Conferences conducted by teachers during independent reading time provide an opportunity to meet with a student to assess progress, to note reading strategies that are being used, monitor books being read, and to provide guidance in developing reading strategies. Rime: The part of a syllable that consists of its vowel and any consonant sounds that come after it. The rime of the word box is /ox/. Scaffolding: A scaffold is a supporting framework. Scaffolded learning is a teaching strategy that helps support students in their learning when they may have difficulties. A goal of scaffolded learning is to have students use a particular strategy independently. Screening Tests: These tests provide information that serves as a baseline. They are usually given to determine the appropriate starting place for instruction. Self-Correction: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students do not read a word or words correctly, but return to the text and read the word or words correctly. Self-Correction Rate: This is the ratio of self-corrections to errors when reading the text. Sound-Print Connection: Understanding the relationship between print and sound. Substitution: In a running record or informal reading inventory, this is a miscue in which students replace the printed word with another word. For example, if the sentence is: â€Å"She said, ‘No,'† the student reads: â€Å"She shouted, ‘No. ‘† Summative Assessment: These tests are usually given at the end of a unit or at the end of the year. They assess a student’s strengths and weaknesses over a period of time.